Blåklint ma trading system

Forex Strategier Forex Strategi, Enkel strategi, Forex Trading Strategi, Forex Scalping Intradag trading Forex strategi för 5-minuters diagram: Rekommendera handel för denna strategi på valutapar EURUSD och GBPUSD, men gör inte mer än 3 kommersiella transaktioner per dag. I ett 5-minuters prisdiagram: 1) Indikator 50 Enkelt rörligt medelvärde (SMA 50) 2) Indikator 21 Exponentiell rörlig genomsnitts (EMA 21) 3) 10 Exponential Moving Average (EMA 10) Ingången till marknaden: Öppna handelspositionen så snart vinkeln på SMA överstiger 20 grader (se diagramnummer 1) och priset återkommer 8212 området mellan EMA med en period på 21 och EMA med en period av 10. Genom att Exempel 8212 Figur 1, vi öppnar affären för att sälja lutningen på 50 SMA. Ange SL (6 pips spridning) och TP (8-10 pips). När på din handelsposition kommer att ha 6 pips, ska du omedelbart överföra SL till breakeven (för det här är helt enkelt inte att ersätta det efterföljande stoppet på en resa). Bara några exempel: Allmän beskrivning Alla levande saker behöver enzymer för att upprätthålla livet. Kroppen beror på enzymer för att hjälpa till att rena blodet, bryta ner fetter, rensa kolon, upprätthålla korrekta kolesterolnivåer och upprätthålla högsta energinivåer. Livsmedelsenzymer är inte något nytt, men har varit kända att existera sedan Hippocrates tid. Det har länge erkänts att sjukdom är relaterad till olämplig diet och otillräcklig näring och att fasta, juicing och dieter rik på örter och råa livsmedel hjälper till att återställa kroppen till hälsa. Traditionella livsmedel och etniska dieter med örter var regeln före införandet av moderna bearbetade livsmedel. En av de längsta levande befolkningarna på jorden, Hunz, består huvudsakligen av en rå matdiet, en kost riklig med enzymer. Enzymer verkar inom olika temperatur - och pH-områden, beroende på typ och funktion och förstöras lätt genom matlagning, inklusive mikrovågsugnar. Arbete som görs i Europa med råa dietdieter visar att patienter med långvariga degenerativa sjukdomar kan göra anmärkningsvärda återhämtningar och National Institute of Health har nyligen släppt en studie som visar att att äta mindre måltider leder till ett längre liv. Detta tyder på att vår inhemska enzymproduktion bättre kan ta hand om mindre kostbehov än ett större intag av mat. Vilka enzymer gör enzymer är komplexa proteinmolekyler som finns i varje cell i din kropp. Enzymer kan aktiveras och kan utföra specifika uppgifter som produktion av energi eller utbyte av syre och koldioxid när vi andas. De kan överföra energi till andra molekyler, vilket gör det lättare för dem att produceras och utnyttjas av kroppen, vilket skapar en dominoeffekt och därmed påskyndar alla kroppsliga funktioner. Vår kropp innehåller 1300 olika enzymer som bryter ner näringsämnen, bygger upp celler och gör att kroppen fungerar sjukdomsfritt. Matsmältningssystemet omvandlar mat till energi för kroppens användning genom att bryta ner komplexa proteiner, fetter och kolhydrater till mindre, enklare och mer användbara former. Utan denna omvandling är matsmältning och assimilering av näringsämnen svårt att omöjligt. Din hälsa är överbelastad och missbrukas av överflöd av bearbetade livsmedel och stimulanser: bakat mjöl, mejeri och koffein, läsk, socker och alkohol. Digestion börjar med synen och lukten av mat som stimulerar utsöndringen av enzymer. Smaksättningen och tuggningen möjliggör mättnad av salivarenzymet, amylas som bryter ner stärkelsen till glukos när du torkar potatis eller bröd. PH sjunker till ett syraområde så lågt som fyra eller fem. Den övre delen av magen som kallas fundus fortsätter att använda amylas och andra enzymer för predigestion. Magsinnehållet passeras sedan genom pylorventilen i tunntarmen där den blandas med pankreasjuicer. Dessa juicer är rika på enzymer såsom proteas (protein), amylas (stärkelse) och lipas (fett, kokare). De fortsätter att smälta och förbereda mat för assimilering. Den alkaliska karaktären av bukspottskörtelns sekret hjälper till att neutralisera magsyrorna (vilket hjälper till vid matsmältningen) och skyddar tunntarmen. Enzymer Naturligt skydd mot sjukdom Enzymer har stor effekt på hela immunfunktionen. Vita blodkroppar innehåller matsmältningsenzymer som alkaliskt fosfatas, lipas, proteas, amylas och peptidas, som ingår i pankreasjuicer, och är bara en del av många enzymer som ökar immunfunktionen. Pankreatin innehåller aminosyror, lipas och trypsin i bukspottskörtelnzymerna. Dessa användbara pankreatiska enzymer hjälper till vid nedbrytning av stärkelser, fetter och proteiner. Dessa vita blodcellsenzymer verkar för att förstöra bakteriella och virala proteiner (vilket kan orsaka sjukdom) och även agera på felaktigt smält mat. Det har visats att koncentrationen av vita blodkroppar i magen och tarmarna ökar med matsmältningen, eftersom vita blodcellsenzymer är nödvändiga för att hjälpa till med nedbrytning och assimilering av mat. En kost rik på rå mat och använder örter som mat och medicin är rik på enzymer som predigestar maten i magen som sparar kroppens vita blodkroppsreserver. Därför följer en minskad aptit och eller illamående ofta en sjukdomsprocess. Vidare kräver uppslutning av kokta eller bearbetade livsmedel energi och vita blodkroppar som behövs någon annanstans för att bekämpa sjukdomsprocessen. Hjärnkemi slår av hungerns centrum i hjärnan efter behov så att immunsystemet kan vara i toppfunktion för att bekämpa sjukdomsprocessen. Ernäringsenzymterapi Enzymer är mycket användbara vid behandling av olika sjukdomar. De absorberas av kroppen som intakta molekyler och distribueras till kroppen genom blodomloppet som behövs för att stödja kroppens behov mot sjukdomsprocessen. Bromelain. som finns i ananas används för att minska inflammation vid artrit, reumatism och muskulär skelettskada. Det har visat sig vara mer effektivt än vanligt föreskrivna icke-steroida antiinflammatoriska läkemedel och har inga toxiska biverkningar. Det är bäst att använda färsk ananas i små mängder eller utspätt i vatten eller juice, då konservburken eller flaskan har värmts och förlorat sina enzymer. Cystisk fibros är en sjukdom där bukspottkörteln inte kan utsöndra tillräckligt med enzymer. Detta medföljer vanligtvis andra klyftstörningar som påverkar sköldkörteln, binjurarna, mjälten och andra körtlar. Det toxifierar också levern och kan relateras till tarmproblem, sömnstörningar, hormonell östrogen obalans och energiförlust. Proteas. är ett enzym visat att långsam metastasering och bidrar till tumörkrympning medan proteas minskar smärta av cancer. Lipasamylas. Nya bevis visar att rika lipas - och amylasnivåer i blodet leder till en minskning av arteriosklerotiska plack, vilket gör enzymterapi användbar mot kranskärlssjukdom och ateroskleros. Åldrande och enzymer. Enzymer har visat sig ge äldre patienter mer energi, en känsla av välbefinnande, bättre näringsassimilering och resistens mot sjukdom. Åldrande minskar möjligheten att producera enzymer och assimilera näringsämnen, vilket saktar vår förmåga att läka. Enzymbrister. Brister i enzymer är ofta associerade med gastrointestinala sjukdomar, matsmältningsstörningar, periodisk gas och uppblåsthet. Måltider som tycks vara kvar i magen i timmar eller dagar kan vara ett tecken på sjukdom. En utvärdering av din läkare behövs för att bestämma orsaken. Örterenzymterapi kan vara botemedel. Enzymtillskott Användningen av enzymer som tillägg med måltider har varit populär under en tid. Vi konsumerar kokta och bearbetade livsmedel som snabbmat som är nutritionellt ofullständiga. Detta bidrar till bördan av bukspottkörteln och immunsystemet för att ersätta förlorade enzymer, rånar kroppen av energiproduktion, enzymreserver och funktion. Enzymtillskott med måltider är en mycket bra förebyggande åtgärd. En god allmän matsmältningsformel som också hjälper kroppen att anpassa sig till sin vikt och fungerar bra för viktminskning bör innehålla betain HCI (ökar magsyra), pankreatin och pankrelipas (smälter stärkelser, fetter, proteiner), papain (smälter proteiner ), pepsin (digererar proteiner), diatas (smälta stärkelser) och Ox Bile (smälter fett). Många örter är enzymaktivatorer som potentierar och förstärker enzymatisk verkan samtidigt som inflammation minskar, avlägsnande av gas och ökad matsmältning: Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum) är en av dessa örter. Fenugreek rensar till katarrons och andra irriterande och yttre material. Det är användbart för alla slemförhållanden och för lungstoppning lugnande mot inflammerade tillstånd i mage och tarmar och för mage som är effektiva som en poultice på sår, inflammerade områden, kokar och karbonhinnor. Kan användas som smörjmedel för tarmarna, som ett matsmältningsstöd, för feber, diabetes, gikt och som en afrodisiakum och föryngringsmedel. En föreslagen dos av fenugreek är två eller flera 500 mg kapslar, 10-15 minuter före måltid. Om mer behövs bör du kontakta din vårdgivare. Det är viktigt att din läkare utvärderar beständiga matsmältningsproblem. Sri Lanka: Expedition till ön av juveler I februari 2014 utforskade författarna Sri Lankarsquos hela min-till-marknaden ädelsten och smyckesindustrin. Teamet besökte flera gruv-, skärnings-, handels-, smyckentillverkning och detaljhandelskontor som representerade varje sektor och bevittnade en dynamisk blandning av traditionella och alltmer moderna metoder. Centurier av tradition som en färgad ädelsten mining, handel och skärning källa nu konvergerar med teknik, färdigheter och strategier på todayrsquos globala marknaden. Sri Lanka är en av de gemeccas av gemology. Få källor, särskilt bland aktiva lokaliteter, kan matcha sin rika historia som en gemproducent och handelscentrum. Som Sri Lanka tar sin plats i todayrsquos pärla och smycken industrin, kan gemologisten observera en kombination av traditionella metoder och modern teknik samt nya affärsstrategier för en starkt konkurrensutsatt marknad. Vad som verkar vara primitiva metoder är ofta mycket effektiva och väl lämpade för uppgiften. De flesta av gruvverksamheterna är småföretag med enkla handverktyg, men de möjliggör kontinuerlig gruvdrift, anställer en stor arbetskraft och är mindre skadliga för miljön (figur 1). Skärning är en annan sektor där traditionella tekniker fortfarande råder, vilket ger utmärkt inledande orientering av den grova kristallen för maximal uppvändning av färg och vikt. Samtidigt uppnår högkvalificerad rekrytering i Sri Lanka internationella marknadsstandarder för proportioner, symmetri och ljusstyrka (figur 2). Fin precisionsskärning till täta toleranser på modern lapidär utrustning tillämpas på kalibrerade varor som uppfyller de strängaste kraven, inklusive klockindustrin. Figur 1. Eftersom Sri Lanka utvecklar sin färgade stenbrytningsindustri, verkar traditionell praxis fortfarande effektiv. Foto av Andrew Lucas. Medan de små butikerna bygger på tillverkningstekniker för smycken som handblåsad lödning, använder moderna fabriker förlorat vax och gjutning såväl som döende. Gemhandeln har utvecklats, delvis på grund av mer handelsvänliga import - och exportregler, vilket gör Sri Lankas köpare mer konkurrenskraftiga globalt. Detaljhandeln fortsätter att hitta en stor inhemsk marknad för traditionella 22K guldsmycken samtidigt som de växer för att möta de olika smakerna hos yngre Sri Lankaner och turister. Figur 2. Sri Lankas lapidaries innehåller traditionella tekniker, modern precisionsskärning och högkvalificerad återställning. Den här arbetaren har årtionden av erfarenhet att klippa och återta korund och chrysoberyl. Foto av Andrew Lucas. Sri Lanka är en stor ö i Indiska oceanen, strax utanför Indiens södra spets. Det mäter 65.610 kvadratkilometer (40.768 kvadratkilometer), med 1,340 kilometer (832 miles) av kusten. I sydväst, där det mesta av ädelstenens gruvor äger rum, håller monsonsäsongen från juni till oktober. Sri Lanka ligger i vägen för stora handelsvägar i Indiska oceanen, en fördel som hjälpte till att etablera den som en av världens viktigaste pärlekällor. Förutom ädelstenar har Sri Lanka naturresurser av kalksten, grafit, mineralsand, fosfater, lera och vattenkraft. Landet är också känt för sina te, kryddor, gummi och textilier. Av den totala arbetskraften är 42,4 anställda inom tjänstesektorn, 31,8 inom jordbruket och 25,8 i industrin, som omfattar gruvdrift och tillverkning (CIA World Fact Book, 2014). Turistindustrin väntas se en stark tillväxt, även om den befintliga infrastrukturen kan kämpa för att rymma en stor tillströmning av besökare till sådana attraktioner som ruinerna på Sigiriya, en UNESCO-världsarvslista (figur 3). Figur 3. Sigiriya, en massiv sten som stod mer än 200 meter hög, omvandlades till en kunglig fästning under kung Kashyapa (477495 AD), med palats, trädgårdar, simbassänger och fresker. Det är en stor turistattraktion i Sri Lanka. Foto av Andrew Lucas. Sri Lankarsquos ekonomi har haft en stark tillväxt sedan 2009, vilket innebar slutet på ett 26-årigt inbördeskrig som länge plågade ekonomisk utveckling. Countryrsquos befolkning på nästan 22 miljoner omfattar olika etniciteter och religioner som återspeglas i stilar av smycken som tillverkas och säljs hemma. Befolkningen är 73,8 Sinhalese, 7,2 Sri Lanka Moor, 4,6 indiska Tamil och 3,9 Sri Lanka Tamil (med 10 ospecificerade). Buddhisterna står för 69,1 av befolkningen, muslimer 7,6, hinduer 7,1 och kristna 6,2 (CIA World Fact Book, 2014). Medan muslimer och hinduer representerar en distinkt minoritet, har de en rik smycketradition, och författarna bevittnade vikten av sin köpkraft i detaljhandeln. GEM HANDELSGESKAP Ädelstenar i Sri Lanka går tillbaka minst 2000 år. Den gem-laden ön hänvisades till sanskrit som Ratna Dweepa, vilket betyder ldquoIsland of Jewelsrdquo (Hughes, 2014). Tidigare arabiska handlare kallade det Serendib, vilket är ursprunget till ordet ldquoserendipity. rdquo Känd till 1972 som Ceylon, den har en rik historia som en källa till ekonomiskt viktiga ädelstenar, särskilt safir (figur 4) och catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl. Figur 4. Medan Sri Lanka producerar en mängd olika värdefulla ädelstenar är safir den viktigaste kommersiellt. Foto av Robert Weldon. Rättvisa av Bill Larson. James Emerson Tennent, en förvaltare av British Ceylon från 1846 till 1850, noterade att Mahavamsa (The Great Chronicle of Ceylon) nämner en pärlemyrkad tron ​​som ägs av en Naga-kung i 543 f. Kr., när de tidigaste kontona på ön skrevs Hughes, 1997). Den romerske naturalisten Pliny den äldste skrev att ambassadörer från Taprobane, som Sri Lanka var känd vid den tiden, pralade på sina fina ädelstenar under kejsar Claudius regering från 41 till 54 e. Kr. (Hughes, 1997). Den grekiska astronomen Ptolemy hänvisade till islandrsquos beryl, safir och guld i det andra århundradet e. Kr. (Hughes, 1997). Marco Polo reste dit i 1293 och noterade det överflöd av ädelstenar, inklusive rubin, safir, topas, ametist och granat (Ariyaratna, 2013). Den berömda arabiska explorer Ibn Battuta, som besökte på 1400-talet, skrev om de olika ädelstenar han såg (Ariyaratna, 2013). Mellan 500 och 1500 e. Kr., under regimen av antika och medeltida Sinhala kungar, var minningen, besittningen och handeln av ädelstenar kontrollerad av monarken. Arabiska och persiska köpmän köpte många fina ädelstenar. Under perioderna med europeisk koloniseringmdashPortuguese (1505ndash1656), holländska (1656ndash1796) och brittiska (1796ndash1948) mdashgem-handeln expanderade bortom den kungliga familjen, eftersom européerna endast var intresserade av handel och vinst (Mahroof, 1997). Europas handlare tog mer av dessa varor till väst och vidareutvecklade islandrsquos rykte som en källa till ädelstenar och handelsexpertise. Under 1900-talet sänktes Sri Lankarsquos som ett främsta smyckenhandel. Detta berodde på många faktorer: uppkomsten av andra källor, ett misslyckande med att anpassa och behärska tekniken som värmebehandling och modern skärning samt regeringsbestämmelser som hindrade den snabba tillväxten som Thailand och andra länder åtnjuter. Sri Lanka har under de senaste två decennierna övervunnit dessa motgångar och har nu en dynamisk, snabbt växande pärla och smyckenindustri. Figur 5. Den 423 ct Logan safiren är en av många kända stenar från Sri Lanka. Foto av Chip Clark med tillstånd av Smithsonian Institution. Sri Lanka är mest känt för sin stora, exceptionella safir och stjärnakorund. Viktiga stenar som rapporteras vara från Sri Lanka inkluderar (Ariyaratna, 2013): Den 466 ct Blue Giant of Orient, förmodligen utvunnet från Ratnapura-området 1907, den 423 ct Logan Blue Safir (figur 5) och 138 ct Rosser Reeves Star Ruby , båda inrymt i Smithsonian Institutionrsquos National Museum of Natural History, 400 ct Blue Belle of Asia, sägs ha hittats i ett fält i Ratnapura distriktet 1926 och beskrivs som att ha den mycket önskvärda ldquocornflowerrdquo blåfärgen 363 ct Star av Lanka, som ägs av National Gem and Jewellery Authority, den 850 ct Pride of Sri Lanka Blue Safir, hittades i Ratnapura i juni 1998 den 563 ct gråaktig blå stjärnan av Indien, som faktiskt upptäcktes i Sri Lanka och donerades till American Museum of Naturhistoria år 1900 av JP Morgan den 12 ct blå safiren i förlovningsringen av Diana, Prinsessan av Wales, som nu bärs av hertiginnan i Cambridge, Kate Middleton UTFÖRANDET Målet med denna studie w att dokumentera hela den sydlankanska färgade ädelstenindustrin från min till marknad. Medan många tidigare artiklar har fokuserat på geologi och gruvdrift, bestämde vi oss för att täcka hela spektrumet, bland annat juvelgruvning, import och export, skärning, behandling, smyckentillverkning och detaljhandel. Vi ville vara beroende av våra egna observationer för alla sektorer. Vi sökte direkt kommunikation med branschledare och handelsmedlemmar. Genom omfattande resor och många besök på olika verksamheter och företag samlade vi hela bilden. Hundratals timmar med videofilmer och intervjuer och mer än 7 000 bilder dokumenterade alla aspekter av branschen i Sri Lanka. Vårt första stopp var hos Sapphire Capital Group, där vi såg Sri Lankas återförsäljare som expertkonsulter för utländska köpare. För en hel dag såg vi en köpare från Nya Zeeland köppaket efter paket av safir och andra ädelstenar från återförsäljare som hans lokala kontakt hade ordnat (figur 6). När han valde sina safirer skulle den utländska köparen höra Sri Lankans om hur stenarna skulle återhämta sig. Där fick vi också den högkvalificerade återställningen av safir och catrsquos-ögon chrysoberyl. Figur 6. Utländska köpare är ofta beroende av en betrodd lokal återförsäljare för att få in andra återförsäljare att visa sina varor. De lokala kontakterna informerar sina utländska kunder om att köpa beslut och återta. Foto av Andrew Lucas. Under de närmaste dagarna betalade vi besök till grossister, återförsäljare och skärande anläggningar i Colombo. Vid Precision Lapidaries fick vi en glimt av den moderna, sydlankanska ädelstenskärningsindustrin, som betonar precision och kvalitet. Vår första resa utanför Colombo var till helgen marknaden på Beruwala, vilket var särskilt upptagen (figur 7). Vi kunde se konsten att gatuhandel i Sri Lanka, tillsammans med handelsverksamheten i kontoren. Vi intervjuade också traditionella skärare och en specialist inom värmebehandling av safir. Figur 7. Gatuplatsen i Beruwala var full av handelsaktivitet. Foto av Andrew Lucas. Vårt nästa stopp var den berömda ädelstensmarknaden nära Ratnapura, där handeln på gatorna var ännu tyngre än vid Beruwala. Vi fick besök på många kontor och traditionella skärnings - och behandlingsanläggningar. Efter att ha spenderat flera timmar på marknaden i Ratnapura, undersökte vi gruvbrytningsverksamheten i området. Vid Balangoda såg vi tre mekaniserade gruvverksamheter och intervjuade flera gruvarbetare. Vi kunde också se en flodbrytningsoperation. Vid denna tidpunkt i vår resa hade vi observerat de tre huvudtyperna av pärlaåtervinning i Sri Lanka: (1) gropbrytning, inklusive enkla smala gropar med gallerier och små öppna gjutningsoperationer, båda arbetade för hand (2) mekaniserad gruvdrift i öppna gropar, inkorporerande backhoes eller bulldozers för grävning och slussar för tvätt och (3) traditionell flodbrytning. I Elahera, en annan känd ort på vår resväg, observerades en mekaniserad operation och traditionell gropgruv. Tillbaka i Colombo hade vi tre dagar att utforska andra skärande anläggningar, grossister och återförsäljare, moderna och traditionella smyckenstillverkare, och den kända pärla och smycken navet på Sea Street. GEM DEPOSITER Klassificeringen av Sri Lankarsquos pärlfångar är sammanfattad i figur 8. De flesta av pärlemagasinerna är av sedimentär natur, men det finns några primära insättningar relaterade till metamorf och magmatisk sten. Regional andor kontaktmetamorfism gynnade bildandet av korund och spinel genom att avlägsna kiseldioxid och vatten, omvandla aluminium - och magnesiumbärande silikater till oxider. Pegmatiter är den viktigaste magmatiska källan till Sri Lanka-ädelstenar, bland annat beryl, turmalin, korund och månsten. Den mest kända pegmatiten är månstenstiden på Meetiyagoda, i södra Sri Lanka (Dissanayake och Chandrajith, 2003). Mendis et al. (1993) noterade att många insättningar fördelas längs strukturella egenskaper såsom fel, veck och skjuvningszoner. Även om dessa strukturer kan påverka fördelningen av pärlfyndigheter, är det oklart huruvida de är genetiskt relaterade. Figur 8. Huvudpärlkupongkategorier i Sri Lanka och motsvarande gruvområden. Från Dissanayake och Chandrajith (2003). Fält A: En relaterad jordhistoria Ön Sri Lanka har blivit välsignad med några av de rikaste pärlemängderna på planeten. Metamorfismen som genererades av en rad bergbyggnadsevenemang resulterade i den pärlaförmögenhet som vi ser idag. Före den välkända Pangea fanns det flera superkontinenter i Earthrsquos tidiga historia. Sammansättnings - och uppbrytningscyklerna hos dessa superkontinenter är motorerna som bildade det mesta av worldsquos-pärlfyndigheten (figur A-1), och några av dessa händelser är nära besläktade med pärlemeddelandet i Sri Lanka. Nästan nio tiondelar av Sri Lanka är underlag av högkvalitativa metamorfa bergarter av prekambisk ålder. Neoshydymium och rubidium-strontiumdatering (se Milisenda et al., 1988, Kroumlner och Williams, 1993) anger en ålder mellan 1000 och 3000 miljoner år (Ma). Superkontinenten Rodinia, föregångaren till Pangea, samlades mellan 1300 och 900 Ma (Li et al. 2008), så protoliten för dessa högkvalitativa metamorfa bergarter måste ha ärvats från tidigare superkontinentcykler. McMenamin och McMenamin (1990) ansåg Rodinia ldquomotherrdquo av alla efterföljande kontinenter. Mer än 75 av planetrsquos landmass vid den tiden hade kluster till att bilda Rodinia, men gigantisk storlek översatte inte till stabilitet för superkontinenten. På grund av den värmeisolering som orsakades av den jätte landmassan, hände den första upplösningen av Rodinia vid ca 750 Ma längs den västra marginalen av Laurentia. Klyftning mellan Amazonia och Laurentias sydostmargin startade vid ungefär samma tidpunkt (Li et al., 2008). Medan Rodinia bröt upp, började de enskilda kontinenterna i Gondwanaland att gå ihop. Gondwanaland monterades mellan 950 och 550 Ma (Kroumlner, 1991). Detritala zirkonålderfördelningarna indikerar att den pan-afrikanska orogenen på global skala nådde sin topp mellan 800 och 600 Ma (Rino et al. 2008). Den här orogenen bildade en av de längsta bergskedjorna i Earthrsquos historia: Moçambique-bältet som sträcker sig från moderna Moçambique till Etiopien och Sudan och täcker också de flesta Madagaskar, Indiens sydliga spets sydspan och Antarktis östra kust. Det här bältet, en dragkraftig zon som markerar korsningen mellan Öst och Västra Gondwanaland, är också ett mineralbälte. Moderna Sri Lanka upptog en central position i detta bälte. Uran-led geokronologi visar att zirkonerna från Sri Lankarsquos högkvalitativa metamorfe bergarter uppvisade signifikant Pb-förlust vid 550 Ma, och ny tillväxt av zirkon, monazit, rutil och granat uppstod mellan 539 och 608 Ma (Kroumlner och Williams, 1993). Det här är datumen för den närmaste metamorfismen som skapade ädelstenarna i landet. Figur A-1. Superkontinenten Rodinia bildades för 900 miljoner år sedan och började bryta ihop omkring 150 miljoner år senare. Några av dess fragment återmonterades för att bilda Gondwanaland, som senare blev en del av superkontinentet Pangea. Sydamerika, Afrika, Madagaskar, Indien, Sri Lanka, Antarktis och Australien var en gång ansluten i Gondwanaland. Anpassad från Li et al. (2008) och Dissanayake och Chandrajith (1999). Nästan alla Sri Lankarsquos källor är alluviala, innehållande rika koncentrationer av pärlbärande graveller kallad illam (figur 9). Förutom safirer återvinns en mängd andra pärlor från illam, inklusive spinel, catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl och månsten. Mycket få viktiga primära insättningar har hittats. En upptäcktes av en olycka under vägbyggandet 2012 nära staden Kataragama (Dharmaratne et al., 2012 Pardieu et al., 2012). Safirfyndet var mycket värdefullt, uppskattat till US100 miljoner eller högre, så regeringen auktionerade av omgivande tomter för gruvdrift. Även om dessa små tomter såldes till det högsta priset som någonsin registrerats för gruvgruvlicenser i Sri Lanka hittades inga kommersiellt värdefulla deponier. Men en fullständig geologisk studie av depositionen har ännu inte genomförts, så Kataragams sanna potential är fortfarande okänd (V. Pardieu, presskomm. 2014). Cirka 10 till 15 primära deponier av safir har upptäckts under de senaste 20 åren, allt av misstag (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, presskomm. 2014). Figur 9. De flesta Sri Lanka ädelstenar är från pärlbärande grus som kallas illam. Grusarna tvättas med hopp om att avslöja en skatt inom det tyngre material som finns kvar i minershanden. Foto av Andrew Lucas. Den mest alluviala gruvan är gjord i områden med en historia av gemproduktion. Det finns många sådana områden i centrala södra delen av ön. På grund av alluviala gruvförluster kan koncentrerade pärlbärande gravlar lämnas kvar. De alluviala gravarna av Ratnapura och Elahera kan innehålla prover från flera typer av primära insättningar (Groat and Giuliani, 2014). Kristaller som finns vid eller nära de ursprungliga källorna kan vara vackert formade, till exempel de vid Kataragama (figur 10). Kristaller som har transporterats längre avstånd, som exemplar som finns i Ratnapura, är vanligtvis rundade stenar (Zwaan, 1986). Figur 10. Denna safirkristall är från den primära insättningen på Kataragama. Foto av Vincent Pardieu. Prospektering i Sri Lanka är sällan vetenskaplig. Vid utvärdering av ett område är den traditionella metoden att driva en lång stålstång i marken (figur 11). Prospektorerna undersöker stångens ände för repor och märken från kontakt med kvarts och korund, och för grus som fastnar på den. Vissa kan även skilja det ljud det gör. Denna metod kan också bidra till att bestämma djupet, sammansättningen, storleken, karaktären och färgen på illam (Ariyaratna, 2013). Figur 11. Den traditionella prospekteringsmetoden i Sri Lanka innebär att man kör en stålstav i marken och undersöker den för repor och märken från kvarts och korund. Foto med tillstånd av Janka Hemachandra. Med mer än 103 naturliga flodbassänger som täcker 90 av Countryrsquos landmassan (Dissanayake och Chandrajith, 2003) finns det många ställen för ädelstenar att koncentrera sig i graveller. Insättningar av korund och andra pärlor är kända för att inträffa i södra två tredjedelar av ön (Hughes, 1997). Vi besökte gruvområdet kring Ratnapura, Balangoda och Elahera. Trots att dessa bara är en liten andel av Sri Lankarsquos-pärlan, gav de en representativ översikt över gruvverksamheten över hela landet. Alla dessa är sekundära grusdekorationer. Det kan inte hittas att några primära insättningar minskar. Fält B: Lokal geologi I enlighet med nomenklaturen som föreslagits av Cooray (1994), kan den prekambiska källaren i Sri Lanka uppdelas i fyra enheter: Highland Complex (HC), Vijayan Complex (VC), Wanni Complex (WC), och Kadugannawa Complex (KC). De flesta av pärlfångarna ligger i HC, som sträcker sig från nordost till sydväst (figur B-1). Funnet inom VC är klippes (öliknande, isolerade fragment av ett överträngande bergskikt) från HC. En av Sri Lankarsquos några primära safirminor upptäcktes av misstag i Kataragama klippe (Pannipitiye et al., 2012). Highland Complex innehåller högkvalitativa metamorfa bergarter som pelitic gneisses, metaquartzite, marmor och charnockite gneiss (Cooray, 1994). Klippor i HC har högsta klass av metamorfism (granulitfasier), och komplexet är yngre än VC i öster och söder. Kontakten mellan dessa två komplex är ett tryckfel som dyker väster och nordväst, med HC på toppen. Detta tryckfel är också en stor tektonisk gräns tolkad som en suturzon som markerar den sista korsningen mellan väst och östgondwanaland vid cirka 550 ma (Kroumlner, 1991). VC består av migmatiter, granitgneisser, granitoider och spridda metasformer (Cooray, 1994). Ligger väster om HC, innehåller WC migmatiter, gneisser, metas och granitoider. Kontaktens natur och exakta position mellan WC och HC är fortfarande inte väldefinierad (Cooray, 1994). Den mindre KC ligger inom de långsträckta synformala bassängerna runt Kandy. Hornblende och biotit-hornblende gneiss är de viktigaste stenarna i KC (Cooray, 1994). Andra än dessa prekambiska källareheter är öns norra och nordvästra kust täckt av kalksten från Miocene, kvaternära röda sängar och klastiska sediment och senare sediment (Dissanayake, 1986). Figur B-1. Förenklad geologisk karta över Sri Lanka som visar de viktigaste källarenheterna och de stora pärlemassorna. Anpassad från Sajeev och Osanai (2004) och Dissanayake och Chandrajith (1999). Medan den moderna gruvindustrin främjar återhämtning med det snabbaste sättet, omfattar Sri Lanka nästan motsatt filosofi. Gruvdrift görs främst av manuell arbetskraft. National Gem och Jewelshylery Authority (NGJA), den tillsynsmyndighet som utfärdar gruvlicenser, är mycket strikt i sina krav på mekaniserad gruvdrift. Denna strategi håller cirka 60 000 till 70 000 perlminerare kontinuerligt anställda (P. G.R Dharmaratne, presskomm. 2014). The predecessor to the NGJA was the State Gem Corporation, which established regional offices and took control of mining licenses and guidelines in 1972. Its regulations for the gem industry supported legal mining operations (Dharmaratne, 2002). Sri Lanka issued 6,565 gem mining licenses in 2013. Mining licenses must be renewed every year, and the number has steadily increased since 2009, when the NGJA granted about 4,000 of them. Many of these licenses are for small areas, half an acre to two acres. Each can accommodate two to four traditional pits, with about 7 to 10 miners per pit deeper pits may accommodate 10 to 15 miners. This system has maintained a fairly constant number of active mines over the years. Once a mining area is finished, the shaft or open pit must be filled in according to regulations enforced by the NGJA. These environmental measures pertain to loose gravel contaminating the surrounding water, damage to the landscape, and holes filled with stagnant water, a breeding ground for malaria-bearing mosquitos. Pit Mining. In Sri Lanka, pit mining is the traditional mining method and by far the most widespread. More than 6,000 of the current licenses are for pit mines, compared to approximately 100 licenses for river mining and 10 for mechanized mining (P. G.R. Dharmashyratne, pers. comm. 2014). We witnessed numerous pit mining operations, all excellent demonstrations of the processes described to us by industry leaders. Miners are actually shareholders in such operations, receiving a small stipend and a percentage of the rough stone sales. As shareholders, they need little or no supervision. Several other people are involved in such a venture, including the landowner, the holder of the mining rights, and the person who supplies the pump to dewater the pit they typically receive 20, 10, and 10 of the sales, respectively. The rest of the revenue is split among the financial stakeholders and the miners (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. comm. 2014). To give an idea of scale, a standard pit mine in Sri Lanka consists of a two by four meter opening at the surface (figure 12). If the pits are deep and located in harder ground, the miners may choose smaller dimensions. The vertical shafts generally range from 5 to 25 meters deep. The pits are created by first digging the opening to about a meter deep. The next step is making a wooden frame of timbers slightly taller than the depth of the pit. The miners place the first set of four timbers into the pit wall, which is grooved for a secure fit. Vertical struts of timber are wedged between the crossbeams. Branches and foliage help shore up the pit walls from water erosion, and timber braces are used in the center (figure 13). This process continues down the depth of the pit about every meter, until the miners reach the gem-bearing gravel. At this point they create horizontal crawl tunnels about 1.5 meters in height, called galleries, from the pit into the gem-bearing gravel. The length of these tunnels varies depending on the extent of the illam, but often reaches 5 to 10 meters. The galleries extending from the pit are interconnected with other tunnels. This leaves some areas of illam that cannot be mined because they are needed for structural support. Buckets of gravel are either passed to the surface or hauled up by rope on a manual winch. Some pits have a wood and branch rooftop to shield the miners from the intense sunlight. A pit with an opening wider than the traditional two by four meters is more like a very small open pit (also called an open cast), but it is still worked by manual labor. We witnessed some of these operations in Ratnapura and Elahera. Usually there were a half dozen people working in each pit. At least one miner at the bottom would shovel the illam into a woven bamboo basket held by another miner. That person would toss the basket to another miner, slightly higher up in the pit, who simultaneously tossed back an empty basket, like a perfectly harmonized juggling act. This process continued through several miners until the illam-filled basket reached the top, where it was dumped into a pile for washing. The accumulated mound of gem-bearing gravel could be covered with leafy branches, similar to those used to shore up the pit walls, to prevent rainwater from washing it away. Pit mines with a standard two by four meter shaft opening follow a similar process for removing the illam, but often using a manually operated winch for hauling buckets to the surface (figure 14). In both examples, the illam is either washed in a nearby reservoir by simple panning or removed to a more sophisticated washing facility featuring a sluice. The sluices are often modified from Australian designs, as they are in other parts of the world. The washed gem-bearing gravel is called dullam (Zwaan, 1982), which is also the term for the smaller, lower-quality gems picked from washing baskets and usually given to miners to sell. While rain caused the erosion that created the amazingly rich gem gravels of Sri Lanka, it also poses a significant obstacle to the mining process. Pits quickly fill up with rainwater that must be removed. This is often done by a pump, which is much faster than old-fashioned methods. Substantial rains can also cause erosion damage to the pits. We saw this at several locations, having arrived after fairly heavy rains. With around 6,500 mining licenses issued annually and around four or five pits in each mine, at any given time there could be 20,000ndash25,000 active pits in Sri Lanka. With extensive mining over the past 50 years, more than a million pits may have been dug altogether. Compared to many African mining countries, very few abandoned pits are left unfilled. This is because the NGJA collects a cash deposit upon issuing a mining license. If the mine owner fails to rehabilitate the land, the NGJA keeps the deposit for that purpose (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. comm. 2014). Mechanized Mining. Only a limited number of mechanized mining licenses are issued in Sri Lanka each year. They may be granted if the concentration of gemstones is not high enough to make pit mining viable, or if there is a serious threat of illicit mining. To avoid large rushes of illicit miners to a rich discovery, the government may block access to the area or issue a mechanized mining license so the deposit can be mined quickly and legally (P. G.R. Dharmashyratne, pers. comm. 2014). Mechanized mining speeds the removal of overburden soil and the recovery of gem-bearing gravel for washing. Most mechanized mines in Sri Lanka are relatively small open-pit operations. Overburden soil sometimes contains dispersed gemstones, and it too may be washed. At mechanized operations, the illam is washed by sluices to keep up with the production (figure 15). Mechanized operations in Sri Lanka must also pay a deposit for the rehabilitation of the land. Figure 15. Mechanized mining in Sri Lanka usually includes washing the illam. Trucks move the gravel, which backhoes load into a sluice for washing. Photo by Andrew Lucas. While mechanized mining operations may use bulldozers, backhoes, excavators, front-loaders, trucks, and sluices for washing, they are still small-scale compared to those in other countries. The mechanized mining licenses are often issued by auction from the NGJA in blocks measuring 30 square meters. We witnessed three mechanized mining operations near Balangoda. The largest was an open-pit operation about 60 meters deep on a property covering 50 acres (figure 16). It had four excavators, two washing sluices, and a few trucks. The excavators at the bottom of the pit loaded the trucks with gem-bearing gravel. The trucks climbed the roads on the pit benches back to the top to the washing operations. The four excavators worked in tandem to move the gravel up the pit until the highest one loaded the trucks. Figure 16. This open-pit sapphire mine near Balangoda, a large one by Sri Lankan standards, had partially filled with water from rains the week before. Photo by Andrew Lucas. With global weather changes, Sri Lankan miners are finding that the rainy seasons are no longer as predictable. This interferes with mining operations, whether traditional or mechanized. At the time of our trip, rainwater had filled many of the pits and needed to be pumped out before mining could resume. The pit at the largest mechanized operation we visited took more than a week to dewater. River Mining. Although nowhere near as prevalent, river mining is also conducted in Sri Lanka. These areas may contain alluvial gem deposits where the river bends or otherwise slows down. The miners choose shallow waters and build a dam made of wood or rock where the stream slows, allowing the water to escape from one side of the dam but trapping the gravels. Using metal blades attached to long wooden poles called mammoties . the miners dredge the gravel until they reach the illam (figure 17). Long pointed steel rods are used to loosen the illam, which is dragged up and washed by the rushing water. Once any visible gemstones are removed, the remaining gravel may be further washed. We observed a river mining operation in Balangoda next to a tea plantation. There were four miners using mammoties to remove the illam, two miners washing gravels with baskets, and another removing larger rocks and building dams. Another miner would wade into the water to remove gravels and larger rocks. We did not see the use of mechanized or powered dredgers at any river mines. Gemstone cutting is another area where the traditional meets the modern in Sri Lanka. Centuries of experience in cutting corundum and other colored gemstones continue alongside new technologies and business models. The time-honored art of reading rough and orienting stones is integrated with the global marketrsquos growing demand for exact calibration, well-balanced proportions, and high-quality polish. Our team observed several examples of traditional and modern cutting, as well as some of the highest-precision cutting of colored gemstones we have ever witnessed. Numerous interviews with members of the Sri Lankan cutting industry revealed the interwoven nuances of blending the past, present, and future. There is still a relevant place for old-style cutters and their expertise, even as innovative companies are thriving. While Sri Lanka has seen some growth in diamond cutting, with 20 companies active in 2013mdashincluding De Beers sightholder Rosy Bluemdashmost of the activity is focused on colored stones, particularly sapphire. The number of licensed cutting businesses has increased only slightly over the last five years, from 174 to 192, though today there are larger, more modern lapidary companies. Traditional Cutting. While the West and Japan sometimes view traditional cutting in Sri Lanka as outdated and not up to modern global proportion and symmetry standards, one can still appreciate the craft. These cutters use a bow to power a vertical lap, often holding the stone by hand or with a handheld dop as they cut and polish (figure 18). They have a high degree of skill in orienting rough gemstones to achieve the best face-up color while retaining weight. Decades and even centuries of knowledge have been passed down on orienting sapphires and other gemstones such as catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl. Of all the cutting steps for colored stones, orienting the rough to display the best color through the table requires the highest skill, especially with valuable rough where weight retention is foremost. For high-quality sapphires, this method is still preferred by Sri Lanka cutters, especially for preforming. Figure 18. While their equipment appears primitive, Sri Lankan cuttersrsquo knowledge of orienting rough sapphire transcends technology and generations. Careful orientation to optimize color is a critical skill. Photo by Andrew Lucas. While blue sapphire often displays its best color through the c-axis, a skilled cutter can make slight angle adjustments to the table and still achieve a fine color with higher weight yield. If this is not done at the initial orientation, multiple recuts may be needed to get the right orientation of the table. With the orientation properly set, the recut produces a beautiful stone with minimum weight loss. For example, a 22 ct blue sapphire that is properly oriented for face-up color can be recut to close windows and optimize proportions and symmetry, while keeping the stone above 20 ct. If the orientation or proportions of a blue sapphire cause a reduction of color, the stonersquos value suffers accordingly. This is especially true for light - to medium-tone blue sapphires, where even a 5 to 10 reduction of color diminishes the value more than a 5 to 10 weight reduction. Precision Cutting and Free Size Cutting. For Sri Lanka to become a leader in the colored stone trade, its cutting industry must meet the specific needs of the global market, where customers from different countries require a wide variety of cutting specifications and tolerances. In Sri Lanka, many fine-quality sapphires over one carat are cut as free sizes. The cutting is performed to minimize windowing and yield pleasing proportions and symmetry rather than exact calibrated measurements. This allows weight retention on more valuable material while creating a beautiful stone with high brilliance. This is essentially a cost decision. It is less expensive to adjust mountings from the standard 12 times 10, 10 times 8, and 9 times 7 mm sizes than to lose weight from valuable gem material. With larger fine-quality material, sizing considerations always give way to beauty and weight retention. Even customers of calibrated sapphires have a range of tolerances. Some can accept a tolerance range as wide as 0.5 mm. For instance, sapphires cut to 7 times 5 mm sizes can vary up to 7.5 times 5.5 mm for some clients. Others have stricter tolerances, such as 0.2 mm, based on their jewelry manufacturing and mounting requirements. Some cutting companies offer tolerances of 0.1 mm or less (figure 19). Figure 19. The girdle outline of this sapphire is being cut to precise calibrated measurements for jewelry manufacture. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Precision Lapidaries. In Colombo, our team visited Precision Lapidaries and interviewed managing director Faiq Rehan. We also spoke with Saman K. Amarasena, vice chairman of the lapidary committee of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association and owner of Swiss Cut Lapidary. On both occasions, we gained insights on the state of precision cutting in Sri Lanka. Despite being a fifth-generation member of the gem industry, Rehan started Precision Lapidaries in 1990 with a business model that was unconventional for Sri Lanka. Rather than cutting only large stones and selling them individually, he specialized in bulk quantities of calibrated cuts, applying the precision standards he had learned years earlier while cutting diamonds. The new company soon received large orders for calibrated sapphires in 2 to 4 mm princess cuts from Japanese clients who constantly pushed for tighter precision and higher quality. In expanding his business, Rehan preferred to hire young people directly out of school and train them to cut sapphire to his exacting standards. This philosophy was unusual in Sri Lanka, where cutters often come from a long line of cutters with deeply ingrained procedures and standards. As he entered the American market, Rehan found buyers wanting much larger quantities of stones cut at a much faster rate. They did not share the Japanese appreciation for precision measurements and higher quality of symmetry and polish. Rehan did not want to abandon his standards of precision and quality, however. He found that serving a high-quality niche market, rather than having a large inventory full of product similar to what was already available, allowed for constant inventory turnover. Rehan believes that the high-end and commercial markets in the United States and elsewhere are moving toward stricter precision and cut quality, and he has expanded his business to fill this demand. Many others are doing the same, and this is changing how the world views the Sri Lankan cutting industry. China now requires very bright stones with no windows or dark areas, as well as excellent proportions and symmetry. Chinese demand for its massive jewelry manufacturing industry has helped fuel the growth of precision cutting in Sri Lanka. The actual production model at Precision Lapidaries is also very different from many other cutting operations. Each cutter assumes full responsibility for a given stone instead of handing it off at different stages as in an assembly line. Some large-scale diamond cutting factories in India have also switched to this model to achieve higher quality standards through personal accountability (D. Pay, pers. comm. 2014). Using this model, Rehan treats his cutters more like partners, basing their compensation on both production and quality. Each cutter has an individual glass-walled workstation to eliminate distractions. A cutterrsquos typical output, using an already preformed and calibrated 8 times 6 mm oval as a benchmark, is 140 to 180 stones per eight-hour workday. The stones are tracked throughout the process and entered into a database. There are several quality control checks at the calibration stage (which requires tolerances of 0.1 mm or less), the faceting stages, and the finished product stage. The companyrsquos production manager noted that if any quality factors are not up to standards for calibration tolerance, facet symmetry, proportion variations, or polish, the stone is returned to the cutter with a repair order. Another nontraditional practice at Precision Lapidaries is its use of detailed inventory and grading reports, the kind favored by large diamond cutting companies. While there was initial resistance, over time customers became comfortable with the information contained in these reports. Each one itemizes a parcel by shape, weight, cutting style, color, and other quality factors. Established customers can review the reports to make buying decisions and place orders, even through the Internet. Swiss Cut Lapidary, which supplies the watch industry with colored gemstones, also stakes its reputation on precision and accuracy. The luxury watch industry requires very small stones cut with a high degree of precision, including very tight proportion tolerances for crown height, pavilion depth, and crown angle. Swiss Cut Lapidary cuts round faceted stones below 1 mm, and even down to 0.35 mm for ladiesrsquo watches. At these sub-millimeter sizes, each faceted stone has eight crown facets and eight pavilion facets. By achieving zero tolerances to the hundredth of a millimeter, the company is able to meet the stringent demands of watch manufacturers. In finished rounds below one millimeter, the size difference between the starting rough and the faceted stone is very slightmdashfor Amarasena, only 0.20 mm. In other words, for a round faceted stone of 0.50 mm, the rough can be as small as 0.70 mm. To achieve this level of precision, Mr. Amarasena first learned traditional cutting by hand before working with mechanical lapidary equipment for Japanese clients. To further his skills, he traveled to Germany and Spain, where he cut a variety of colored gemstones using modern machines and techniques. Upon returning to Sri Lanka with high-precision Swiss-made equipment, Amarasena purchased mine-cut sapphires and recut them to global market standards. In Europe he had seen many Sri Lankan sapphires being recut, so he knew the exact requirements. Figure 20. At Swiss Cut Lapidary, Saman Amarasena conducts quality control for the fitting of gemstones in a watch bezel. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Swiss Cut Lapidary. Amarasena also decided to shift his focus from recutting to unique designer cuts. At the annual Basel jewelry show, he noticed watches with small faceted gemstones set in the bezels. Back in Sri Lanka, he looked for small rough to use for cutting these stones. Rough chips were practically given to him because they were abundant and there was no real market for them. Amarasena faceted tiny precision stones from these chips in a wide variety of colors and tones, providing many options to watchmakers (figure 20). Although the rough costs slightly more today, its cost is minimal compared to the finished cut product. Micro-pave settings are another growing market for these precision-cut gemstones. Recutting. In Sri Lanka, some sapphires are initially cut with what has been termed a mine cut or native cut (figure 21). While the proportions and symmetry are not up to modern gem industry standards, the cutters execute a high degree of skill in orienting the rough primarily for weight retention. These stones are considered advanced preforms that can be recut to market-friendly proportions and symmetry without substantial weight loss. The ideal color orientation has already been applied, so many Sri Lankan dealers simply have them recut to close windows and remove excess depth from the pavilions while making the shapes less bulky and more appealing. Figure 21. This 6.76 ct mine cut sapphire has been oriented by a Sri Lankan cutter primarily for weight retention. It can be recut to meet global standards of proportion and symmetry. Photo by Robert Weldon. The same holds true for gemstones sold decades ago that are reentering the global market. Special care must be taken with stones that have deep pavilions. While the market prefers pavilions that are not overly deep, any reduction of color will lower the value considerably (figure 22). If the recut involves more substantial weight loss, then the calculations become more complicated, and every case is unique. If a 2.08 ct stone is to be recut to 1.80 ct, the buyer must decide if too much of the premium would be lost below the 2 ct size. Figure 22. The recutting of sapphire (left) requires great skill to close windows and improve symmetry, all while minimizing weight loss and retaining depth of color. Cats-eye chrysoberyl and star sapphire (right) are recut for better positioning of the effect. Photo by Andrew Lucas. These mine cuts from Sri Lanka were once exported to Thailand, the United States, and other countries to be recut to modern global standards. Eventually, Sri Lankan dealers realized they were missing out on a significant value-added service for their customers. Since the 1990s, they have provided that service, selling stones directly that meet the highest international cutting standards. Besides facet-grade sapphire, our team witnessed the recutting of catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl and star sapphire. The original mine cuts strongly favored weight retention over symmetry and placement of the catrsquos-eye or the star. Recutting was needed to reposition these effects to the center of the cabochon and add symmetry. The recutting also made for a straighter catrsquos-eye that moved more smoothly across the stone. While this involved some weight loss, it was often limited to a few points, and the final product would have significantly higher value on the global market. Japan was once the main market for catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, but that distinction now belongs to China. Much of Sri Lankarsquos gemstone trading industry is centered on sapphire. Traditionally this was limited to goods of domestic origin, but today sapphires from around the world are brought to Sri Lanka for enhancement and cutting. Most import and export businesses are family-owned and go back several generations. For example, the fifth-generation Sapphire Capital Group has more than 100 family members involved in the industry. In 2013 there were 4,429 gem dealing companies in Sri Lanka, only a slight increase since 2009. Yet the quantity and value of exports has risen sharply over those five years (table 1). Table 1 (PDF) During the 1970s and 1980s, Thailand emerged as the undisputed leader in corundum trading. Its facilities began mastering the art of heat treatment, purchasing corundum rough from around the world. This included Sri Lankan geuda sapphire, which is translucent and has a desaturated, often grayish color. As the Thais discovered, heating this material gives it a transparent, highly saturated blue color. Sri Lankan buyers considered the geuda rough virtually worthless and were slow to capitalize on the use of heat treatment to turn it into a very valuable gemstone (Kuriyan, 1994). Unlike their Thai counterparts, Sri Lankan buyers dealt primarily in domestically mined rough. Part of this had to do with the idea of preserving a national brand identity, but what really hindered them was a cumbersome import policy for rough. This changed in the mid-1990s when the government lifted import duties that had inhibited the purchase of corundum rough from other sources. Sri Lankan buyers have, in turn, established a strong presence in the marketplace, especially at global gem sources such as Madagascar and Mozambique. While the countryrsquos industry still capitalizes on the brand identity of domestic gems, the trade is much more open to gems mined elsewhere. The improvements in the Sri Lankan industry are timed perfectly to take advantage of the increased global demand for sapphire, particularly the Chinese colored stone market (ldquoChina becoming Sri Lankarsquos top gem buyer. rdquo 2011). As an example of the rise in sapphire prices over the last few decades, untreated top-quality blue sapphires sold in Sri Lanka can reach US15,000 to 20,000 per carat. Those are dealer to dealer prices. In 1969 similar stones would have sold for US400 to 1,000 per caratmdashapproximately 2,600 to 6,500 per carat, adjusted for inflation (N. Sammoon, pers. comm. 2014). Local Mining Area and Street Markets. The first major street market we toured was in Beruwala, 60 km south of Colombo. The gem trading area of Beruwala is also known as China Fort, named for the Chinese merchants who arrived about 300 years ago. Most of the dealing occurs within a single block, where there is constant activity of dealers on the street. This market is open on Saturday from 6:00 a. m. to 2:30 p. m. or later if there is strong activity. During our visit, the market was also busy on Sunday. At any given time, over 5,000 dealers may be active on the street and in the hundred or so officesmdashthe major dealers in Colombo have offices in Beruwalamdashoffering rough sapphire from the mines of Sri Lanka, as well as Africa and other global sources. We witnessed a flurry of trading activity. Sri Lankan dealers often traded rough among themselves on the street (figure 23). Once word got out of a foreign buyer in a dealerrsquos office, other dealers would come by with their stones. There were also traditional Sri Lankan cutters and heat treatment facilities in Beruwala. Just off the street was Emteem Gem Laboratory, where dealers could bring in stones for testing and identification. The demand for lab services has grown tremendously with the influx of foreign customers, especially Chinese buyers. One of the most sought-after services is the detection of heat treatment in corundum. This is also one of the most challenging identifications, especially if relatively low temperatures are used in the treatment. For corundum that has been subjected to very high temperatures, clients were advised to submit the stone to a foreign laboratory with more sophisticated instrumentation that could conclusively identify beryllium diffusion. About half of the stones submitted to the Emteem lab are believed to be of African origin (M. T.M. Haris, pers. comm. 2014). We also stopped at the gem market in Ratnapura on the way to several nearby gem-mining operations. This market is active daily from 6:00 a. m. to 4:00 p. m. Like Beruwala, this market was bustling on the streets and in dealer offices (figure 24). While the streets were crowded with dealers, the market was spread out over several streets, as opposed to the single block in Beruwala. Ratnapura had numerous small traditional cutting operations. Like Beruwala, transactions were happening all over the street, particularly between Sri Lankan dealers. The market at Ratnapura is centered in one of the countryrsquos major gem sources and offered plentiful rough from the nearby mines and other areas (figure 25). There was also an abundance of cut stones for sale. Some foreign buyers on the street dealt directly with local miners, but most transactions were between Sri Lankan miners and dealers. We saw the same dealers attending different markets. Consulting for Foreign Buyers. One growing trend is for foreign buyers to work with Sri Lankan dealers to develop long-term supply chain management. The foreign dealers can arrange to have a variety of goods brought to their local contactrsquos office, allowing them to see much more inventory during a trip. The local dealer puts the word out to suppliers for the type of material required. Dealers bring their goods to the office for inspection by the foreign buyer. Prospective sellers are screened, making the transaction process more organized and less of a selling frenzy. Once the price is negotiated, the rest of the logisticsmdashpayment for the stones, export requirements, and shipping if requiredmdashare handled by the local contact, who receives a set commission from the seller. Besides convenience, this arrangement offers several other benefits. The local contact can give expert advice on recutting, including the difference in carat weight and price per carat. They can also recommend an acceptable counteroffer and give an expert opinion on the nature of the material (figure 26). This system minimizes risk, as the local contact stands behind the goods they have brought to the foreign buyer. For extra assurance, they can have the stones checked by a gemologist before the buyer leaves the country. Colombo is a hub for such services, and this same expertise and assurance is sought by foreign buyers in Sri Lankan mining areas and street markets. Figure 26. Local dealers with decades of experience provide invaluable consultation to foreign buyers on recutting stones and purchasing rough material. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Imports and Exports. Sri Lankarsquos import policies have been greatly simplified, making the process much easier and more cost-effective. For a US200 charge, rough, preformed, and cut stones can be imported for cutting, recutting, and heat treatment. The flat rate charge is assessed regardless of quantity and value. As of 2013, foreign customers buying gemstones parcels valued at over US200,000 are expedited through customs so they can board their flight with minimum processing. The export fee for these parcels is a flat rate of 1,500. Parcels valued below US200,000 require about two hours to be processed by the NGJA for export (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Buying on the Secondary Market. Because Sri Lanka has been supplying sapphire, catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl, and other gemstones to the global market for so long, many dealers have decades of experience and an international clientele. Having maintained relationships with their customers, they know where to find important stones that were sold years before. They can contact their clients and act as brokers to resell the gemstones, making a substantial profit for both parties. As global wealth shifts toward China, previous customers in Japan and the West have become sources of fine-quality gemstones for this secondary market. These stones may be recut to more contemporary proportion and symmetry standards, and sapphires that were heated 30 years ago can be retreated using modern technology. A couple of decades ago, Sri Lankan dealers would attend exhibitions and trade shows in Japan and the United States to sell gemstones. Now some of them go to buy gemstones for recutting, heat treatment, and resale in the Chinese market. HEAT TREATMENT Sri Lanka is highly regarded for its heat treatment expertise (figure 27). Those who perform heat treatment, called burners, are known for their ability to get the finest blue color out of a sapphire. They typically use a two-part process, a combination of gas and electric furnaces. The second burn, in the electric furnace, refines the blue color, often achieving a much more valuable color. Some other countries that treat sapphire send their heated material to Sri Lanka for the second burn (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Figure 27. Rough sold in mine-area markets can be dramatically improved through heat treatment. It takes considerable experience to predict the change in value. Photo by Andrew Lucas. We visited one burner in Beruwala who heated blue sapphire from Sri Lanka and Madagascar in a gas furnace. The stones were heated to approximately 1600degC to 1700degC for four hours in an aluminum oxide crucible with a reducing atmosphere. For yellow Sri Lankan sapphires, the burner used an oxidizing atmosphere at approximately 1600degC for six hours. No compounds or fluxes were used in the crucible. The gas furnace is typically a Lakmini furnace, which has an alumina chamber covered in insulation and a stainless steel exterior, a water cooling system, two gas flow meters, two thermocouples and temperature indicators (digital or analog), a view hole, and an inlet top feed for an additional gas such as nitrogen or hydrogen (M. Hussain, pers. comm. 2014). An atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide is reported to work best for geuda sapphires, turning them transparent and blue (Kuriyan, 1994). Clients typically bring mixed parcels of sapphires in different colors. The burner will divide the lot by color and type of sapphire and the desired result, and then advise the client of the different heating processes and what can be expected after treatment. Most stones brought to the burner are in the preform stage, so most of the inclusions that could cause damage are already cut away. Treatment in the gas furnace is almost always followed by heating in an electric oven to further improve the color (M. Hussain, pers. comm. 2014). Expertise in heat treatment has also made Sri Lankans more competitive in buying rough from Africa and other sources. Some African blue sapphire, especially from Madagascar, is similar to Sri Lankan geuda material (F. Rehan, pers. comm. 2014). In value terms, the effect of modern heat treatment is tremendous. One Sri Lankan burner can reportedly take light blue sapphire with silk inclusions causing a foggy appearance, valued at US300 per carat for a 10 ct stone, and heat it to a transparent fine blue color valued at US2,000 per carat. This burner asks for one-third the value of the heated stone rather than a flat fee (N. Sammoon, pers. comm. 2014). JEWELRY MANUFACTURING As with gemstone cutting, there are both traditional and modern methods for jewelry manufacture. Both approaches are used in Sri Lanka, though some metals and styles are more suited to modern manufacturing. Mass-production techniques give some companies a competitive advantage by lowering costs. Jewelry made in Sri Lanka is targeted to the domestic retail market and to Sri Lankans living abroad. Manufacturing for export and for the emerging tourist industry is expected to grow. Traditional 22K Gold Jewelry Manufacturing. The 22K gold jewelry manufactured in Sri Lanka is alloyed to have a slightly more reddish yellow color than similar goods from India, Singapore, Dubai, and Turkey. This is accomplished by using a slightly higher percentage of copper and a lower percentage of silver in the alloy. In countless small workshops in Colombo and other areas of Sri Lanka, 22K gold jewelry is manufactured using time-honored and modern methods. We witnessed many of these shops in Colombo and during an extensive tour of the Sujitha Jewellery workshop on the famous hub of Sea Street. While small by global standards, this was one of the larger facilities we observed. They worked primarily with 22K gold and created traditional styles. About a dozen jewelers were working in small rooms that made very efficient use of space. The jewelers sat on the floor as they fabricated by hand. Many of them were shirtless due to the heat. They bent and formed metal with pliers, filed, sawed, polished with flex shafts and traditional leather strips embedded with polishing compounds, and soldered. Most used jewelerrsquos torches, but one still preferred a blowpipe for soldering (figure 28). Equipment such as a hand-powered rolling mill and draw plate was used to make gold sheet and wire. Figure 28. This jeweler preferred the traditional blowpipe for soldering 22K gold jewelry. His ability to control the direction and intensity of the flame was remarkable. Photos by Andrew Lucas. Modern Jewelry Manufacturing. In contrast to these traditional shops are modern facilities where technology has been embraced by the Sri Lankan jewelry manufacturing industry. Large-capacity vacuum casters imported from Italy can handle numerous waxes for mass production of both 22K gold jewelry and more contemporary pieces in 18K gold, white gold, platinum, or even silver. Other technologies such as casting diamonds in place, laser welding (instead of soldering), stamping or die striking, machining, and CADCAMmdashthe methods used in manufacturing centers such as Italy, China, and Indiamdashhave been adopted by progressive Sri Lankan jewelry manufacturers (figure 29). Figure 29. CADCAM is used for all styles of Sri Lankan jewelry design, even traditional 22K gold jewelry. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. We visited the modern factory of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery in Colombo. The company manufactures jewelry primarily for its retail store and online business, which also serves overseas clients. The spacious facility handled all types of gold alloys, silver, and platinum, but a large part of the production consisted of 22K gold jewelry. While the factory incorporated methods such as lost-wax casting and die striking, there were also jewelers working on hand fabrication using traditional forming techniques, albeit at modern jewelerrsquos benches. Besides traditional 22K gold jewelry for the domestic market, modern jewelry manufacturing is also being adopted by colored stone cutting and trading companies who are moving into finished jewelry. Customers from the United States and other developed markets are increasingly purchasing Sri Lankan jewelry with mounted colored stones (S. Ramesh Khanth, N. Seenivasagam, and N. S. Vasu, pers. comms. 2014). Jewelry that can be designed and custom-made to specifications is also manufactured in Sri Lanka. One of Sri Lankarsquos leading retailers and jewelry exporters, Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery is also one of its most progressive manufacturers. Along with mass-market 22K gold jewelry, they manufacture a full range of styles, including gemstone, synthetic gemstone, white gold, and platinum jewelry (figure 30). To safeguard against cross-contamination, tools such as files, polishing wheels, and burs are dedicated solely to platinum manufacturing. Figure 30. While 22K gold jewelry represents the mainstream in Sri Lanka, contemporary jewelers also sell white metal and gem-set jewelry, such as the earrings and ring worn by this model. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. In 1990, Wellawatta Nithyakalyani invested in a vacuum casting machine from Italy. The few other casting operations in existence used centrifugal casting. This machine gave the company an advantage in capacity, speed, and cost of producing jewelry for its retail store. In terms of consistency, vacuum casting lowered the weight variation of pieces from about 10 with hand fabrication to less than 1. Today, the factory incorporates hand fabrication, wax carving, casting, stamping, and various settings such as prong, bead, paveacute, and channel. Wellawatta Nithyakalyanirsquos manufacturing methods are becoming more modernized and cost-effective. Even though hand fabrication costs remain relatively low in Sri Lanka, the competitive market and low margins for 22K jewelry have led to the widespread use of casting (figure 31) and stamping. Companies that manufacture and sell directly to retail customers have a distinct advantage, as they can eliminate distribution costs for this low-markup jewelry. Figure 31. These wax carvings are being fine-tuned to make master models from which tens of thousands of pieces can be reproduced. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. The company focuses its retail efforts on women and middle - to upper-class consumers in Colombo and its suburbs, where the countryrsquos strongest jewelry market exists. The precious metal weight of its jewelry ranges from one gram to over 100 grams in a single piece, catering to a broad span of income. Wellawatta Nithyakalyani also manufactures and retails jewelry set with diamonds, colored gemstones, cubic zirconia, and crystal glass. This includes white precious metals, 18K gold, and traditional 22K gold used for weddings and as financial assets. The 22K gold wedding necklaces generally range from US450 to 4,500. Between its manufacturing and retail operations, the company staffs about 115 employees, representing a cross-section of Sri Lankarsquos ethnic and religious groups. Its two full-time designers have degrees in architecture and are trained in jewelry design using CADCAM. Most of Wellawatta Nithyakalyanirsquos export business is for mass-produced lines of jewelry sold in high volume. These are shipped to retailers in Canada, UK, Switzerland, Australia, and Dubai, where they are usually purchased by Sri Lankans living abroad. These expatriates also buy jewelry, especially diamond and gemstone merchandise, when they return to Sri Lanka for holidays. In addition, the companyrsquos website offers an extensive line of jewelry directly to retail customers worldwide. Another company that encompasses the manufacturing-to-retail value chain can be found on Sea Street, home of Ravi Jewellers. The company, founded in the 1960s by Ravi Samaranayake as a small traditional 22K gold jewelry retailer, has operated continuously for almost 50 years. Today, the firm is involved in jewelry manufacturing, creating jewelry of all styles sold directly to retail customers (figure 32). Figure 32. Sri Lankan retailers needed a large inventory for their customers to choose from. Box after box of 22K gold and other types of jewelry would be brought out for customers. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Ravi Jewellers. With its modern manufacturing capability, Ravi Jewellers also sells wholesale to other retailers throughout Sri Lanka. This demonstrates another emerging trend where companies that cover the manufacturing-to-retail value chain sell wholesale to smaller domestic retailers. Their manufacturing division also allows them to provide an extensive custom design service to their retail clients and on the wholesale level to other retailers, a business model that creates a competitive advantage. In addition to being the Sri Lankan agent for Swarovski synthetic cubic zirconia, the company markets Italian alloys and serves as an official currency exchange to accommodate tourists. It has even ventured into selling gold bullion purchased in Dubai. For all its modernization and expansion of services, Ravi Jewellers remains a family business, typical of the Sri Lankan industry. JEWELRY RETAIL Sri Lanka has a thriving domestic retail jewelry industry. Its dynamics are different from those of Western jewelry markets and even elsewhere in Asia. Its retail industry is strongly influenced by jewelryrsquos role in Sri Lanka as an investment and hedge against economic uncertainty, the tradition of gold wedding jewelry, the preferences of religious groups, the tourist trade, the Western tendencies of younger consumers, and the lack of emphasis on gemstones in jewelry. Jewelry as a Financial Asset. The use of gold jewelry for financial security is a tradition among many Sri Lankans. As one European gem dealer noted, they are more practical than Western jewelry buyers, who purchase luxury branded products as status symbols that lose most of their value immediately. When there is ample income, Sri Lankans typically buy gold jewelry that can be converted to cash during difficult economic times. The pawn industry is a major component of the Sri Lankan economy, and most major banks issue loans with jewelry as collateral. The loans are based almost entirely on the commodity value of the gold, with heavier 22K pieces receiving the highest loan value. Some of the countryrsquos major banks have anywhere from 17 to 40 of their lending portfolios concentrated in gold jewelry as collateral (A. P. Jayarajah, pers. comm. 2014). Many lower - to middle-class Sri Lankans use pawn shops for 22K gold jewelry loans, receiving instant cash for 75 to 80 of the gold value. Most of these pieces are heavy, from about 80 to 160 grams. Clients generally redeem their items within six months to a year and pay a slight interest charge. Men tend to pawn jewelry more than women (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). During the height of the gold market, when prices soared to more than US1,700 an ounce, the lending industry became very competitive and pawn shops were offering around 90 of the gold value of jewelry. Many consumers did not redeem their jewelry at these loan values, and when the price of gold fell, the pawn shops lost substantial collateral value. Wedding Jewelry. For most jewelers in Sri Lanka, the wedding business is arguably the most important. Although jewelry trends inevitably change, gold is an essential component of a Sri Lankan wedding. Jewelry is given to the bride and the groom, as well as the bridal party. Around 80 of this wedding jewelry is for the bride, though jewelry purchases for the groom are on the rise (V. Rishanthan, pers. comms. 2014). Traditional 22K gold jewelry remains the wedding jewelry of choice, and it is still used as a dowry in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankans comprise many of the major religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. Each religion has its own style of jewelry, especially for weddings, with differences both subtle and obvious (A. P. Jayarajah and V. Rishanthan, pers. comms. 2014). Hindus tend to wear larger, heavier jewelry of a more Indian style, and designs are often based on what is popular in India (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). In Hindu weddings, the bride is given substantial amounts of 22K gold jewelry, including a thick Thali necklace (often weighing between 80 and 250 grams) and longer chains, as well as bangle bracelets. The groom usually receives one simple ring. The bridesmaids and the groomrsquos mother and sisters also receive 22K gold jewelry, making Hindu weddings a major jewelry purchasing event in Sri Lanka. Buddhists use both rings and necklaces for weddings, often with more floral and classic Sinhalese designs. Sinhalese Buddhists tend to choose lighter, more delicate designs than Hindus for weddings. Brides are presented with a ring, necklace, bangle, and matching earrings in their wedding sets, and the groom receives a gold ring. Still, most Buddhist weddings do not involve as much gold jewelry as Hindu weddings. In addition to the Thali, Sri Lankarsquos Christian community uses rings for the bride and groom. Whereas Hindu Thali necklaces often incorporate a square shape with a symbol of Vishnu inside, Christian Thali designs feature the Bible or a heart shape with a dove. Muslims tend to buy larger and heavier bangle bracelets than the Hindus, Buddhists, or Christians. Sri Lankan retailers immediately know the ethnicity and religion of their customers by observing the jewelry they wear into the store. Of the more than 3,500 bangle bracelets in Wellawatta Nithyashykalyanirsquos product lines, around 95 of these are 22K gold. This is the bracelet of choice in the Muslim community, whose women display their bangles stacked on the arm. Muslim brides also receive a Thali and a large chain, matching earrings, and engagement necklace. Grooms often prefer a white metal for their ring. Expatriate and Tourist Trade. The strong tie between Sri Lankans and their jewelry is not confined to the island. Sri Lankans living abroad, many of whom left during the civil war, purchase traditional jewelry when returning to their native land. The month of August is especially busy for Sri Lankan retailers, as many expatriates living in Europe return for vacation (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). They will plan out and purchase all the jewelry gifts needed for the entire year, such as weddings, birthdays, and other occasions. Again, most of them choose traditional 22K gold jewelry based on ethnic or religious heritage. Since the end of the civil war in 2009, tourism has been growing. With over one million tourists in 2013 and an expected doubling of that figure in 2014, retailers noted a dramatic impact on sales. Many of these tourists are Sri Lankans living abroad, but retailers are seeing more European, Australian, American, and especially Chinese visitors. The countryrsquos jewelry industry is working to brand Ceylon sapphires, which are sold in boutiques of major hotels (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Retailers are reporting the positive effects of tourism on sapphire jewelry sales. Global awareness of Sri Lankan sapphires was also heightened in October 2010, when Great Britainrsquos Prince William gave Kate Middleton a Sri Lankan blue sapphire engagement ringmdashthe same ring worn by his mother, Diana, Princess of Wales. According to officials from the NGJA and the International Colored Gemstone Association (ICA), demand for Sri Lankan blue sapphires in engagement rings rose sharply in the West and in China. Sea Street. One of the most important areas for Colomborsquos jewelry trade is near the harbor on Sea Street. The Sea Street jewelry trade was started in the early 1900s by the Chettiar community, a Hindu caste originating in southern India. They are known as a mercantile class of businesspeople and bankers. The Chettiar merchants were involved in money lending, largely with jewelry as collateral. Over time, this led to the development of jewelry retail, wholesale, and manufacturing businesses on Sea Street. By the 1950s, the district had become the major jewelry hub of Sri Lanka, focusing on 22K gold. There are still Chettiar temples on Sea Street today, though much of the community has returned to India (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). While Sea Street remains the countryrsquos jewelry hub, the rest of the country has seen significant retail and wholesale growth since the end of the civil war. Sea Street often supplies these new retailers with wholesale jewelry and manufacturing, or with specialized services such as stone setting, laser welding, and plating. In return, small local manufacturers throughout Sri Lanka supply finished jewelry to Sea Street retailers (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). Figure 33. Sea Street is a concentrated center of retailers, pawn shops, and jewelry manufacturers. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Walking down the few blocks of Sea Street, you see hundreds of jewelry stores and pawn shops (figure 33). Closer examination reveals that some of the storefronts lead to complexes divided into 50 to 100 very small shops, some just 10 by 10 meters. Within these shops, jewelry is crafted using traditional methods. Much of the manufacturing on Sea Street consists of family businesses that continue from one generation to the next. Gemstone Jewelry Market. While Sri Lanka is known all over the world as an abundant supplier of sapphire and other colored gemstones, the local market for gemstone jewelry is surprisingly weak. Much of the domestic demand is for 22K gold jewelry without gemstones. Even more interesting is the Sri Lankan preference for synthetic cubic zirconia and crystal glass in jewelry. This is directly related to the custom of buying jewelry as much for financial security as for personal adornment. Sri Lankans can always go to a pawn shop or bank and receive a high percentage of the gold value in their jewelry as a loan. Once gemstones are added to the jewelry, it becomes more difficult to receive a loan value close to the cost of the piece. The gemstone value is not as liquid and cannot be assigned a market value for a loan. As a low-cost alternative to add color and sparkle to their jewelry, many Sri Lankans opt for cubic zirconia and crystal glass (figure 34). For instance, a 22K gold bracelet set with CZ might cost US500 at Wellawatta Nithyakalyani, compared to US5,000 for a comparable bracelet set with good-quality natural diamonds. Unlike consumers in the West or Japan and China, Sri Lankans see little reason to spend the difference. For mass-market 22K gold jewelry, most consumers only allow the addition of gemstones up to 25 above the price of the gold. After that, there is price resistance. Sri Lankans are often willing to spend more on gemstones in 18K gold jewelrymdashapproximately 40 above the gold valuemdashand even more for platinum jewelry. But this custom is slowly changing, and the market for natural colored gemstones and diamonds set in jewelry is growing, especially among upper-income and young consumers. Figure 34. Many retail stores offer gold jewelry with less-expensive Swarovski crystal and cubic zirconia to add color and sparkle. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Younger Consumers. V. Rishanthan, director of Ravi Jewellers, compared the buying preferences of his motherrsquos generation and his wifersquos generation. His motherrsquos generation, composed of women in their sixties, prefers large sets of 22K gold jewelry and substantial pieces weighing 40 to 80 grams. These impressive sets are reserved for special occasions such as weddings, birthdays, and visits to the temple. The rest of the time, such jewelry is kept in a safe or other secure location. This generation also views jewelry as a commodity that can be readily pawned for cash. Rishanthanrsquos wife, representing the younger generation of women in their twenties and thirties, prefers lighter jewelry, such as necklaces weighing around 8 to 10 grams. His wife may own ten lighter pendants while his mother may have only two much heavier pendants. Younger women are very aware of jewelryrsquos financial uses but want to wear it every day, in a variety of fashionable styles. Another trend among younger Sri Lankans is to resell their jewelry back to a store within six months to a year to trade it in for a new style. So while younger consumers may be buying lighter jewelry, they are buying more pieces and constantly exchanging them for new styles, creating more opportunities for the Sri Lankan retail industry. These younger consumers pay close attention to design trends and up-and-coming designers (V. Rishanthan, R. Samaranayake, J. Sasikumaran, and Y. P. Sivakumar, pers. comms. 2014). The younger generation is also far more open to other gold alloys such as 18K, and they are especially fond of white metals such as platinum, white gold, and silver. Still, the sentimental and investment aspects of 22K yellow gold jewelry are not lost on the new generation of Sri Lankan consumers. Younger men are buying more jewelry for themselves, and these still tend to be heavier pieces. With their preference for modern designs, younger consumers also buy more jewelry with diamonds (especially smaller ones) and colored gemstones, usually set in white metal. Blue sapphire is quite popular. Synthetic cubic zirconia or crystal glass can also be used to achieve the desired color. As with yellow gold jewelry, these white metal pieces tend to be lightweight. CONCLUSION Our expedition to Sri Lanka took us through all sectors of the colored gemstone and jewelry industry. While other reports have tended to focus on mining or treatment, very few have tackled the entire scope of the Sri Lankan industry. Over the course of two weeks, we witnessed mining operations, traditional and modern cutting, trading, treatment, and retail. The resulting documentation revealed a very vibrant industry across all sectors and allowed us to construct a complete picture. The changes over the last decade have been significant. Modernized cutting has allowed Sri Lanka to produce precision cuts of the highest caliber. Meanwhile, traditional cutting continues to incorporate centuries of experience orienting sapphire, catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl, and other colored stones for color and weight retention. Mining is still aggressively pursued but mostly by small-scale operations, helping to preserve the environment and gem resources so more Sri Lankans have more opportunities to strike it rich. A wealth of trade expertise gives Sri Lanka a competitive advantage as it looks to expand its share of the global gem market. Many foreign buyers consult with local dealers on purchasing decisions and the potential benefits of recutting and heat treatment. Rough stones imported from other global sources fuel the value-added industries of cutting and treatment. With decades of trading experience and a global client list, Sri Lankan dealers know where to find important stones for the growing secondary market, particularly in China. Meanwhile, trade organizations such as the National Gem and Jewellery Association and the National Gem and Jewellery Authority are working on a bilateral trade agreement that could eliminate import tariffs on colored gemstones entering China from Sri Lanka (R. Kamil, pers. comm. 2014). Jewelry manufacturing is another sector that incorporates both traditional and modern techniques. Most of the manufacturing is to satisfy consumer demand for 22K gold jewelry, as a wedding gift and as a financial asset, at home and in Sri Lankan communities around the world. Younger consumers are demanding contemporary styles, new metals and alloys, and a greater use of gemstones. A growing tourist industry is also influencing Sri Lankan jewelry manufacture. Figure 35. The Sri Lankan retail industry hopes to maintain the traditional market in 22K gold jewelry while developing new products to meet the tastes of future generations. Photo by Andrew Lucas. With rapid economic development since the end of the civil war in 2009, the Sri Lankan gem and jewelry industry could see dramatic growth, albeit at a much smaller scale than in neighboring India. Some of this growth is already happening in the diamond jewelry market, which has long been hindered by consumersrsquo limited purchasing power and the tradition of pawning jewelry for the commodity value of the precious metals. It remains to be seen whether Sri Lankan demand for contemporary jewelry featuring diamonds, colored stones, and alternative precious metals will match the popularity of 22K gold jewelry (figure 35). The islandrsquos gem and jewelry industry displays remarkable vitality and ambition for growth. With the ICA Congress coming to Colombo in 2015, the influx of foreign buyers to the annual Facets Sri Lanka show, and a stronger presence at trade shows in China, the Sri Lankan industry is striving for greater international recognition. About the Authors Mr. Lucas is manager of field gemology, Dr. Hsu is technical editor of Gems Gemology . and Mr. Padua is video producer, at GIA in Carlsbad, California. Mr. Sammoon is a member of the board of directors of the National Gem and Jewellery Authority, chairman of the Sapphire Capital Group, chairman of foreign promotions and deputy chairman of Facets Sri Lanka of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association. Mr. Jayarajah is CEO of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery and chairman of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the following members of the Sri Lankan gemstone and jewelry industry for all their support and sharing their experience and knowledge: Shamil Sammoon (Sapphire Capital Group) Naji Sammoon (Sapphire Cutters Ltd.) Faiq Rehan (Precision Lapidaries) Sujitha Traditional Jewellery Ravi Samaranayake and V. Rishanthan (Ravi Jewellers) Y. P. Sivakumar and J. Sasikumaran (Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery) Prof. P. G.R. Dharmaratne (former chairman, National Gem and Jewellery Authority) Ajith Siriwardena (deputy superintendent of Customs) Saman K. Amarasena (Swiss Cut Lapidary) A. H.M. Imtizam (Gem Paradise) H. C.J. Bandara N. Seenivasagam and N. S. Vasu (Devi Jewellers) S. Ramesh Khanth (Devi Gold Cast) M. S.M Fazli (Saleems Limited) Juzar Adamaly and Roshen Weereratne (Facets Sri Lanka) Aly Farook Ruzwan Kamil (MSM Kamil Exporter of Fine Gemstones) W. D. Nandasari (Sapphire Gems) Nabeel Salie (FJC The Fine Jewellery Company) Altaf Iqbal (Regal Gems) M. Hussain M. T.M Haris (Emteem Gem Laboratory) and M. L.M. Sanoon (San Gems). The National Gem and Jewellery Authority of Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association, and the International Colored Gemstone Association provided access to and understanding of the countrys industry. References Ariyaratna D. H. (2013) Gems of Sri Lanka . 7th ed. AampB Graphics Nawinna, Maharagama, Sri Lanka. China becoming Sri Lankarsquos top gem buyer from emerging markets (2011) Xinhua News Agency, news. xinhuanetenglish2010 china2011-0915c131141158.htm date accessed: Oct. 10, 2014. CIA World Fact Book (2014) South Asia: Sri Lanka, ww w. cia. govlibrarypublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosce. html. Cooray P. G. (1994) The Precambrian of Sri Lanka: A historical review. Precambrian Research . Vol. 66, No. 1ndash4, pp. 3ndash18, dx. doi. org10.10160301-9268(94)90041-8. Dharmaratne P. G.R. (2002) Gem mining and sustainable environmental management in Sri Lanka . Journal of Gemmology . Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 153ndash161. Dharmaratne P. G.R. Ranjith Premasiri H. M. Dillimuni D. (2012) Sapphires from Thammannawa, Kataragama area, Sri Lanka. GampG . Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 98ndash107, dx. doi. org10.5741 GEMS.48.2.98. Dissanayake C. B. (1986 ) Preliminary Assessment of the Gem Potential of Sri Lanka . Economic Development Board (EDB), Colombo, Sri Lanka, p. 160. Dissanayake C. B. Chandrajith R. (2003) Gem-Bearing Stream Sediments of Sri Lanka Geology and Geochemistry . Gem and Jewellery Research and Training Institute and the National Gem and Jewellery Authority, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Groat L. A. Giuliani G. (2014) Geology of Gem Deposits . Second Edition, Short Course Series Volume 44, Chapter 2: The Geology and Genesis of Corundum Deposits, Mineralogical Association of Canada, p. 95. Grunow A. Hanson R. Wilson T. (1996) Were aspects of Pan-African deformation linked to Iapetus opening Geology . Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 1063ndash1066, dx. doi. org10.11300091-7613(1996)0241063:WAOPAD2.3.CO2. Hughes R. W. (1997) Ruby amp Sapphire . RWH Publishing, Boulder, CO. Hughes R. W. (2014) Ruby amp Sapphire: A Collectorrsquos Guide . Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand, Bangkok. Kroumlner A. (1991) African linkage of Precambrian Sri Lanka. Geologische Rundschau . Vol. 80, No. 2, pp. 429ndash440, dx. doi. org10.1007BF01829375. Kroumlner A. Williams I. S. (1993) Age of metamorphism in the high-grade rocks of Sri Lanka. Journal of Geology . Vol. 101, No. 4, pp. 513ndash521, dx. doi. org10.1086648243. Kuriyan V. (1994) Sri Lankarsquos growing heat treatment expertise. ICA Gazette . April, pp. 8ndash9. Li Z. X. Bogdanova S. V. Collins A. S. Davidson A. De Waele B. Ernst R. E. Fitzsimons I. C.W. Fuck R. A. Gladkochub D. P., Jacobs J. Karlstrom K. E. Lu S. Natapov L. M. Peace V., Pisarevsky S. A. Thrane K. Vernikovsky V. (2008) Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: A synthesis. Precambrian Research . Vol. 160, No. 1ndash2, pp. 179ndash210, dx. doi. org10.1016j. precamres.2007.04.021. McMenamin M. A.S. McMenamin D. L.S. (1990) The Emergence of Animals: The Cambrian Breakthrough . Columbia University Press, New York. Mahroof M. M.M. (1997) Corundum in Sri Lanka: Its historical and social role. Part 1. The Canadian Gemmologist . Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 111ndash116. Mendis D. P.J. Rupasinghe M. S. Dissanayake C. B. (1993) Application of structural geology in the exploration for residual gem deposits of Sri Lanka. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Finland . Vol. 65, pp. 31ndash40. Milisenda C. C. Liew T. C. Hofmann A. W. Kroumlner A. (1988) Isotopic mapping of age provinces in Precambrian high-grade terranes: Sri Lanka. Journal of Geology . Vol. 96, No. 5, pp. 608ndash615, dx. doi. org10.1086629256. Pardieu V. (2012) Sapphire rush near Kataragama, Sri Lanka. GIA News from Research . giathaipdfKataragama. pdf. Rino S. Kon T. Sato W. Maruyama S. Santosh M. Zhao D. (2008). The Grenvillian and Pan-African orogens: Worldrsquos largest orogenies through geologic time, and their implications on the origin of superplume. Gondwana Research . Vol. 14, No. 1ndash2, pp. 51ndash72, dx. doi. org10.1016j. gr.2008.01.001. Sajeev K. Osanai Y. (2004) Ultrahigh-temperature metamorphism (1150degC, 12thinspkbar) and multistage evolution of Mg-, Al-rich granulites from the Central Highland Complex, Sri Lanka. Journal of Petrology . Vol. 45, No. 9, pp. 1821ndash1844, dx. doi. org10.1093petrologyegh035. Zwaan P. C. (1982) Sri Lanka: The gem island. GampG . Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 62ndash71, dx. doi. org10.5741GEMS.18.2.62. Zwaan P. C. (1986) Gem minerals from the Embilipitiya and Kataragama areas in Sri Lanka. The Australian Gemmologist . Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 35ndash40.